social media use in Myanmar is not yet comparable to that in India, its rapid growth will mean that political actors may increasingly incorporate similar tactics to those used in India. Countering Hate Speech and Disinformation: Reflections and Recommendations The challenge of hate speech and disinformation is a global one, but it has clearly impacted countries such as Myanmar more severely. Initiatives to counter hate speech and disinformation effectively will have to involve a range of actors who may have limited experience in working together. For a case like Myanmar, the involvement of the Myanmar government, Facebook, Myanmar-based observer groups, media and social media practitioners, anthropologists and human rights activists, ethnic rights organizations, religious leaders, and political leaders will all be essential for any effective effort to combat or mitigate hate speech and disinformation. A questionable assumption is that all of the groups identified will have the political will and the resources to combat hate speech and disinformation, which may not always be the case, especially as the elections approach and the temptation to use disinformation and hate speech to boost one’s political support rises. Given these partisan dimensions of hate speech and disinformation, and the limited capacity of government institutions to combat hate speech and disinformation, self regulation efforts by Facebook and other social media companies, in cooperation with civil society activists and technology entrepreneurs, may be the most practical and meaningful initiatives for the coming electoral period. References Alkiviadou, Natalie (2019), ‘Hate Speech on Social Media Networks: Towards a Regulatory Framework?’ Information and Communications Technology Law, ​28:1, 19-35. Boti-Phiri, Mphatso (2017), ‘Conflict Prevention, Peace Building and Prevention of Mass Atrocities’ in Dan Kuwali and Frans Viljoen, eds., ​By All Means Necessary: Protecting Civilians and Preventing Mass Atrocities in Africa, ​Pretoria University Law Press, pp. 288-305. Callahan, Mary and Myo Zaw Oo (2019) ​Myanmar’s 2020 Elections and Conflict Dynamics, ​United States Institute of Peace, No. 146. Chan Thar (2019) ‘Muslim prayer houses shut down amid ‘nationalist’ protest’, ​Myanmar Times​, May 17, p. 2. 14