authorities, who at the same time amplify a hateful rhetoric that emboldens perpetrators” (UN HRC, 2018). At the same time, state-sponsored narratives (from both the military and civilian government) have sought to limit discussions of hate speech and discrimination that contradict official perspectives. This has resulted in a vacuum of information and limited space for constructive discussion of contentious identity issues. It has also meant that Facebook is increasingly being used for partisan political communication, especially by the NLD and its allies (on one side) and the USDP and its allies (on the other) (Nyi Nyi Kyaw, 2019). The current social media environment in Myanmar, in which partisan political communication is taking an increasingly larger share of the discursive space and in which most participants are reluctant to criticize powerful individuals or groups for fear of defamation suits has led to a lack of forums where constructive discussion of how to counter discrimination and hate speech can take place. The threat of sanctions for defamation and related offenses has also had a dampening effect on public forums where more general policy topics can be discussed critically and constructively. As the Venice Commission has noted, “the application of hate legislation must be measured in order to avoid an outcome where restrictions, which aim at protecting minorities against abuses, extremism, or racism, have the perverse effect of muzzling opposition and dissenting voices, silencing minorities, and reinforcing the dominant ideology and political, social and moral discourse” (Venice Commission, 2008). This lack of space for constructive discussion has meant that hate speech and discrimination continue to spread throughout social media channels and offline means, often manifesting in incendiary ways that threaten a serious risk of violence. With 2020 elections around the corner, this risk is particularly evident as different parties in the election may seek to use hate speech and disinformation around identity politics to boost political support for their positions. In the recent Indian elections, Hindu nationalists used on-line hate speech and disinformation against Rohingya refugees in West Bengal to bolster Hindu nationalist agendas, leading to threats and attacks on Rohingya refugees (Goel and Rahman, 2019). While the level of 13